Peshawar (Pashto: پېښور Pēx̌awar [peˈçawar]; Hindko: پشور; [pɪˈʃɔːɾ]; Urdu: پشاور [peˈʃaːʋər]) is the capital of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and its largest city. It is the sixth-largest in Pakistan. Peshawar is also the largest Pashtun-majority city in Pakistan. Situated in the broad Valley of Peshawar near the eastern end of the historic Khyber Pass, close to the border with Afghanistan, Peshawar’s recorded history dates back to at least 539 BCE, making it the oldest city in Pakistan and one of the oldest cities in South Asia.
As the center of the ancient Gandhara region, Peshawar became the capital of the Kushan Empire under the rule of Kanishka; and was home to the Kanishka stupa, which was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world. Peshawar was then ruled by the Hephthalites, followed by the Hindu Shahis, before the arrival of Muslim empires. The city was an important trading center during the Mughal era, before becoming part of the Afghan Durrani Empire in December 1747, and serving as the Afghan winter capital from 1776 until the capture of the city by the Sikh Empire in March 1823, which was then followed by the British in 1846.
History
The modern name of the city “Peshawar” comes from the Persian words ‘Pesh’ – ‘Awardan’ meaning ‘the first coming city. It was named so by Mughal Emperor Akbar from its old name Parashawar, the meaning of which Akbar didn’t understand. The name ‘Parashawar’ itself is seen as a corruption of the Sanskrit name “Purushapura” (Sanskrit: पुरूषपुर Puruṣapura, meaning “City of Men ” or “City of Purusha”). However, the name Purushapura does not appear in any ancient Indian literary sources. The ruler of the city during its founding may have been a Hindu raja (King) named Purush; the word pur means “city” in Sanskrit. Sanskrit, written in the Kharosthi script, was the literary language employed by the Buddhist kingdoms which ruled over the area during its earliest recorded period. The city’s name may also be derived from the Sanskrit name for “City of Flowers,” Poshapura, a name found in an ancient Kharosthi inscription that may refer to Peshawar.
Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang’s 7th-century account of a city in Gandhara called the city Po-la-Sha-up-lo (Chinese: 布路沙布邏, bùshābùló), and an earlier 5th-century account by Fa-Hien records the city’s name as Fou-Lou-Sha (Chinese: 弗樓沙, fùlóshā), the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit name of the city, Purushapura. An ancient inscription from the Shapur era identifies a city in the Gandhara valley by the name pskbvr, which may be a reference to Peshawar.
The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid 10th century, the city was known as Parashāwar. The name was noted to be Purshawar and Purushavar by Al-Biruni.
The city began to be known as Peshāwar by the era of Emperor Akbar. The current name is said by some to have been based upon the Persian for “frontier town” or, more literally, “forward city,” though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may account for the city’s new name. One theory suggests that the city’s name is derived from the Persian name “Pesh Awardan”, meaning “place of first arrival” or “frontier city,” as Peshawar was the first city in the Indian subcontinent after crossing the Khyber Pass. Akbar’s bibliographer, Abu’l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, lists the city’s name as both Parashāwar, transcribed in Persian as پَرَشَاوَر, and Peshāwar (پشاور).
Geography
Topography
Peshawar is located in the broad Valley of Peshawar, which is surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides, with the fourth opening to the Punjab plains. The city is located in the generally level base of the valley, known as the Gandhara Plains.
Climate
With an influence from the local steppe climate, Peshawar features a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh), with very hot, prolonged summers and brief, mild to cool winters. Winter in Peshawar starts in November and ends in late March, though it sometimes extends into mid-April, while the summer months are from mid-May to mid-September. The mean maximum summer temperature surpasses 40 °C (104 °F) during the hottest month, and the mean minimum temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). The mean minimum temperature during the coolest month is 4 °C (39 °F), while the maximum is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F).
Peshawar is not a monsoon region, unlike other parts of Pakistan; however, rainfall occurs in both winter and summer. Due to western disturbances, the winter rainfall shows a higher record between the months of February and April. The highest amount of winter rainfall, measuring 236 millimetres (9.3 in), was recorded in February 2007, while the highest summer rainfall of 402 millimetres (15.8 in) was recorded in July 2010; during this month, a record-breaking rainfall level of 274 millimetres (10.8 in) fell within a 24-hour period on 29 July 2010—the previous record was 187 millimetres (7.4 in) of rain, recorded in April 2009. The average winter rainfall levels are higher than those of summer. Based on a 30-year record, the average annual precipitation level was recorded as 400 millimetres (16 in) and the highest annual rainfall level of 904.5 millimetres (35.61 in) was recorded in 2003. Wind speeds vary during the year, from 5 knots (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h) in December to 24 knots (28 mph; 44 km/h) in June. The relative humidity varies from 46% in June to 76% in August. The highest temperature of 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded on 18 June 1995, while the lowest −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) occurred on 7 January 1970.
Cityscape
Historically, the old city of Peshawar was a heavily guarded citadel that consisted of high walls. In the 21st century, only remnants of the walls remain, but the houses and havelis continue to be structures of significance. Most of the houses are constructed of unbaked bricks, with the incorporation of wooden structures for protection against earthquakes, with many composed of wooden doors and latticed wooden balconies. Numerous examples of the city’s old architecture can still be seen in areas such as Sethi Mohallah. In the old city, located in inner-Peshawar, many historic monuments and bazaars exist in the 21st century, including the Mohabbat Khan Mosque, Kotla Mohsin Khan, Chowk Yadgar and the Qissa Khawani Bazaar. Due to the damage caused by rapid growth and development, the old walled city has been identified as an area that urgently requires restoration and protection.
The walled city was surrounded by several main gates that served as the main entry points into the city — in January 2012, an announcement was made that the government plans to address the damage that has left the gates largely non-existent over time, with all of the gates targeted for restoration.
Demographics
Population
The population of the Peshawar district in 1998 was 2,026,851. The city’s annual growth rate is estimated at 3.29% per year, and the 2016 population of Peshawar district is estimated to be 3,405,414. With a population of 1,970,042 according to the 2017 census, Peshawar is the sixth-largest city of Pakistan. and the largest city in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, with a population five times higher than the second-largest city in the province.
Language
The primary native languages spoken in Peshawar are Pashto and Hindko, though English is used in the city’s educational institutions, while Urdu is understood throughout the city.
The district of Peshawar is overwhelmingly Pashto-speaking, though the Hindko-speaking minority is concentrated in Peshawar’s old city, Hindko speakers in Peshawar increasingly assimilate elements of Pashto and Urdu into their speech.
Religion
Peshawar is overwhelmingly Muslim, with Muslims making up 98.5% of the city’s population in the 1998 census. Christians make up the second-largest religious group with around 20,000 adherents, while over 7,000 members of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community live in Peshawar. Hindus and Sikhs are also found in the city − though most of the city’s Hindu and Sikh community migrated en masse to India following the Partition of British India in 1947.
Though the city’s Sikh population drastically declined after Partition, the Sikh community has been bolstered in Peshawar by the arrival of approximately 4,000 Sikh refugees from the conflict in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas; In 2008, the largest Sikh population in Pakistan was located in Peshawar. Sikhs in Peshawar self-identify as Pashtuns and speak Pashto as their mother tongue. There was a small, but, thriving Jewish community until the late 1940s. After the partition and the emergence of the State of Israel, Jews left for Israel.
Afghan refugees
Peshawar has hosted Afghan refugees since the start of the Afghan civil war in 1978, though the rate of migration drastically increased following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province, with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981. The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar’s infrastructure and drastically altered the city’s demography. During the 1988 national elections, an estimated 100,000 Afghan refugees were illegally registered to vote in Peshawar.
With the influx of Afghan refugees into Peshawar, the city became a hub for Afghan musicians and artists. Some Afghan refugees have established successful businesses in Peshawar, and play an important role in the city’s economy.
In recent years, the Peshawar district hosts up to 20% of all Afghan refugees in Pakistan. In 2005, Peshawar district was home to 611,501 Afghan refugees — who constituted 19.7% of the district’s total population. Peshawar’s immediate environs were home to large Afghan refugee camps, with Jalozai camp hosting up to 300,000 refugees in 2001 – making it the largest refugee camp in Asia at the time.
Afghan refugees began to be frequently accused of involvement with terrorist attacks that occurred during Pakistan’s war against radical Islamists. By 2015 the Pakistani government adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees, including many who had spent their entire life in Pakistan. The policy of repatriation was also encouraged by the government of Afghanistan, though many refugees had not registered themselves in Pakistan. Unregistered refugees returning to Afghanistan without their old Afghan identification documents now have no official status in Afghanistan either.
Economy
Peshawar’s economic importance has historically been linked to its privileged position at the entrance to the Khyber Pass – the ancient travel route by which most trade between Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent passed. Peshawar’s economy also benefited from tourism in the mid-20th century, as the city formed a crucial part of the Hippie trail.
Peshawar’s estimated monthly per capita income was ₨55,246 in 2015, compared to ₨117,924 in Islamabad, and ₨66,359 in Karachi. Peshawar’s surrounding region is also relatively poor − Khyber Pakhtunkhwa’s cities on average have an urban per capita income that is 20% less than Pakistan’s national average for urban residents.
Peshawar was noted by the World Bank in 2014 to be at the helm of a nationwide movement to create an ecosystem for entrepreneurship, freelance jobs, and technology. The city has been host to the World Bank assisted Digital Youth Summit — an annual event to connect the city and province’s youths to opportunities in the digital economy. The 2017 event hosted 100 speakers including several international speakers and approximately 3,000 delegates in attendance.
Transportation
Road
New flyovers, such as this one near the suburb of Hayatabad, have been constructed in recent years to improve traffic flow.
Peshawar’s east–west growth axis is centred on the historic Grand Trunk Road that connects Peshawar to Islamabad and Lahore. The road is roughly paralleled by the M-1 Motorway between Peshawar and Islamabad, while the M-2 Motorway provides an alternate route to Lahore from Islamabad. The Grand Trunk Road also provides access to the Afghan border via the Khyber Pass, with onwards connections to Kabul and Central Asia via the Salang Pass.
Peshawar is to be completely encircled by the Peshawar Ring Road in order to divert traffic away from the city’s congested centre. The road is currently under construction, with some portions open to traffic.
The Karakoram Highway provides access between the Peshawar region and western China, and an alternate route to Central Asia via Kashgar in the Chinese region of Xinjiang.
The Indus Highway provides access to points south of Peshawar, with a terminus in the southern port city of Karachi via Dera Ismail Khan and northern Sindh. The 1.9 kilometres (1.2 mi) Kohat Tunnel south of Peshawar provides access to the city of Kohat along the Indus Highway.
Motorways
Peshawar is connected to Islamabad and Rawalpindi by the 155 kilometers long M-1 Motorway. The motorway also links Peshawar to major cities in the province, such as Charsadda and Mardan. The M-1 motorway continues onwards to Lahore as part of the M-2 motorway.
Pakistan’s motorway network links Peshawar to Faisalabad by the M-4 Motorway, while a new motorway network to Karachi is being built as part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor.
The Hazara Motorway is being constructed as part of CPEC, and is providing control-access motorway travel all the way to Mansehra and Thakot via the M-1 and Hazara Motorways.
Rail
Peshawar Cantonment railway station serves as the terminus for Pakistan’s 1,687 km (1,048 mi)-long Main Line-1 railway that connects the city to the port city of Karachi and passes through the Peshawar City railway station. The Peshawar to Karachi route is served by the Awam Express, Khushhal Khan Khattak Express, and the Khyber Mail services.
The entire Main Line-1 railway track between Karachi and Peshawar is to be overhauled at a cost of $3.65 billion for the first phase of the project, with completion by 2021. Upgrading the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometers per hour, versus the average 60 to 105 km per hour speed currently possible on existing tracks.
Peshawar was also once the terminus of the Khyber Train Safari, a tourist-oriented train that provided rail access to Landi Kotal. The service was discontinued as the security situation west of Peshawar deteriorated with the beginning of the region’s Taliban insurgency.
Air
Peshawar International Airport offers direct flights throughout Pakistan, as well as to Bahrain, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.
Peshawar is served by the Bacha Khan International Airport, located in the Peshawar Cantonment. The airport served 1,255,303 passengers between 2014 and 2015, the vast majority of whom were international travelers. The airport offers direct flights throughout Pakistan, as well as to Bahrain, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.
Culture
Music
After the 2002 Islamist government implemented restrictions on public musical performances, a thriving underground music scene took root in Peshawar. After the start of Pakistan’s Taliban insurgency in 2007–2008, militants began targeting members of Peshawar’s cultural establishment. By 2007, Taliban militants began a widespread campaign of bombings against music and video shops across the Peshawar region, leading to the closure of many others. In 2009, Pashto musical artist Ayman Udas was assassinated by Taliban militants on the city’s outskirts. In June 2012, a Pashto singer, Ghazala Javed, and her father were killed in Peshawar, after they had fled rural Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for the relative security of Peshawar.
Musicians began to return to the city by 2016, with a security environment greatly improved following the Operation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014 to eradicate militancy in the country. The provincial government in 2016 announced a monthly income of $300 to 500 musicians in order to help support their work, as well as a $5 million fund to “revive the rich cultural heritage of the province”.
Museums
The Peshawar Museum was founded in 1907 in memory of Queen Victoria. The building features an amalgamation of British, South Asian, Hindu, Buddhist, and Mughal Islamic architectural styles. The museum’s collection has almost 14,000 items and is well known for its collection of Greco-Buddhist art. The museum’s ancient collection features pieces from the Gandharan, Kushan, Parthian, and Indo-Scythian periods.